The Oirats, also known as Oriats or Western Mongols, represent one of the most dynamic and resilient branches of the Mongolic peoples. Emerging from the forested regions of the Altai, Yenisei, and Baikal areas, they played significant roles across centuries of Mongol history, from the empire-building era of Genghis Khan to the establishment of successor khanates. Their story is marked by military prowess, political adaptability, and a strong commitment to Tibetan Buddhism in later periods.
The term Oirat likely derives from Dörben Öörd, meaning the Allied Four, referring to their core tribal confederation. The main subgroups included the Choros (Ölöt or Dzungar precursors), Torghut, Dörbet, Khoshut, and often Khoid. These groups formed flexible alliances that allowed them to influence vast regions of Central Asia, China, and beyond.
From early submission to Genghis Khan through the Toluid Civil War, the rise under Esen Taishi, and subsequent fragmentation into the Dzungar, Khoshut, and Kalmyk polities, the Oirats demonstrated remarkable endurance. Their westward migrations and cultural preservation continue to shape Kalmyk identity today.
The Oirats in the 13th Century: Submission to Genghis Khan and Integration into the Mongol Empire
The Oirats, known in early sources as the forest people or hoy-in irgen from the Altai, Yenisei, and Baikal regions, first appear prominently in the Secret History of the Mongols. Initially, they opposed Genghis Khan during his rise to power in the early 13th century.
Around 1207-1208, under their leader Quduqa Beki, the Oirats allied with Jamukha against Temujin (Genghis Khan) but were defeated by Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son. Following their defeat, the Oirats submitted and became loyal allies, contributing warriors and guidance through the forested northern territories.
Quduqa Beki played a key role by guiding Mongol forces against other forest tribes, such as the Tumat near Lake Baikal. In recognition of their submission, marriage alliances were formed: Genghis Khan's daughter Checheyigen married Inalchi, son of Quduqa Beki, and Jochi's daughter Qoluiqan married Törölchi.
The Oirats were organized into military units within the Mongol army, forming a tümen (unit of ten thousand). They participated in major campaigns, including western expeditions under Hulagu in the Middle East, demonstrating their value as formidable warriors in the expanding empire.
The main Oirat subgroups - Choros (Ölöt), Torghut, Dörbet, Khoshut, and Khoid - operated within the broader confederation framework, though their distinct identities were already emerging. Their integration strengthened the western flank of the Mongol forces.
The Oirats' early service under Genghis Khan laid the foundation for their enduring presence in Mongol history, blending nomadic resilience with strategic military contributions.
The Oirats after Genghis Khan: From the Toluid Civil War to the Yuan Collapse
Following the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the Oirats continued to serve across the vast Mongol Empire. They maintained a western focus while participating in campaigns in Persia, Syria, and other regions under leaders like Hulagu.
During the Toluid Civil War (1260-1264), sparked by the death of Möngke Khan, most Oirats supported Ariq Böke against his brother Kublai Khan. Ariq Böke, based in the traditional Mongol heartland of Karakorum, represented a more conservative steppe vision and drew strong backing from Oirat forces and other traditionalists.
Kublai Khan ultimately prevailed, benefiting from superior resources in northern China. After Ariq Böke's surrender in 1264, the Oirats submitted to Kublai and integrated into the emerging Yuan Dynasty administration and military structures.
With the collapse of Yuan rule in China in 1368, the Oirats re-emerged as a significant power in the Altai and Dzungaria regions. They positioned themselves as a counterbalance to the Eastern Mongols of the Northern Yuan, engaging in ongoing rivalries and alliances amid the power vacuum.
The core subgroups - Choros, Dörbet, Khoshut, Torghut, and Khoid - began solidifying their roles within the loose Dörben Oirat framework during this transitional period, setting the stage for greater confederation in the following century.
This era highlighted the Oirats' adaptability, transitioning from imperial servants to regional power brokers in the fragmented post-Yuan Mongol world.
The Oirats in the 15th Century: Rise of the Dörben Oirat Confederation and Esen Taishi
The 15th century marked the zenith of Oirat power with the formation and expansion of the Dörben Oirat (Four Oirats) confederation. Comprising primarily the Choros (Ölöt), Dörbet, Torghut, Khoshut, and Khoid, this alliance acted as kingmakers among the Mongols, installing puppet Chinggisid khans while wielding real authority through taishis (chiefs).
Esen Taishi of the Choros tribe rose to prominence after succeeding his father Toghon around 1438. He unified the Oirat subgroups and extended control over much of Mongolia, challenging both Eastern Mongols and the Ming Dynasty.
In 1449, Esen led a major invasion of Ming China. The campaign culminated in the Tumu Crisis, where Oirat forces decisively defeated a massive Ming army at Tumu Fortress, capturing Emperor Yingzong. This victory temporarily restored significant Mongol influence and forced Ming concessions.
Esen's overreach, including declaring himself khan (a title traditionally reserved for Borjigin descendants), led to internal opposition. He was assassinated around 1455, causing the confederation to fragment amid renewed rivalries with Eastern Mongols under leaders like Dayan Khan.
Despite the setbacks, the Esen era showcased Oirat military innovation, diplomatic maneuvering, and the ability to project power far beyond their Altai-Dzungaria homeland.
This period remains a source of pride in Oirat and Kalmyk heritage, illustrating a time when Western Mongols stood at the forefront of Mongol resurgence.
The Oirats in the 16th–Early 17th Centuries: Fragmentation and Reconsolidation
After the decline following Esen Taishi, the Dörben Oirat confederation faced ongoing pressures from Khalkha Mongols, Ming and emerging Qing forces, and internal rivalries. Tibetan Buddhism (Gelugpa tradition) spread among the Oirats in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, providing cultural and spiritual cohesion.
The Choros (Ölöt) emerged as leaders of the eastern wing, evolving into the Dzungar Khanate under figures like Batur Khong Taiji by the 1630s. They controlled core territories in Dzungaria and expanded influence across Central Asia.
Internal conflicts and competition for pastures prompted major migrations. The Torghuts under Kho Orluk, along with significant Dörbet and some Khoshut contingents, began moving westward around 1618-1630s. They crossed southern Siberia, reaching the lower Volga steppes and establishing the Kalmyk Khanate.
The Khoshuts, led by Güshi Khan, migrated southward to Qinghai (Kokonor) and Tibet in the 1630s-1640s. They became protectors of the Dalai Lama and the Gelugpa school, founding the Khoshut Khanate.
By the early 17th century, the original confederation had splintered into three main successor polities: the Dzungar Khanate (Choros-led), the Khoshut Khanate, and the Kalmyk Khanate (Torghut-led), with Dörbets and Khoids distributed among them. This fragmentation marked the end of unified Dörben Oirat but ensured the survival and distinct development of Oirat subgroups.
These divergent paths preserved Oirat language, nomadic traditions, and Buddhist faith across vast distances, directly shaping the heritage of modern Kalmyks and other Oirat communities.
Source: Kalmyk Heritage Center (
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